2022 AHA/ACC/HFSA Guideline for the Management of Heart Failure: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Joint Committee on Clinical Practice Guidelines
Clinical Practice Guideline: Full Text
Abstract
Aim
The “2022 AHA/ACC/HFSA Guideline for the Management of Heart Failure” replaces the “2013 ACCF/AHA Guideline for the Management of Heart Failure” and the “2017 ACC/AHA/HFSA Focused Update of the 2013 ACCF/AHA Guideline for the Management of Heart Failure.” The 2022 guideline is intended to provide patient-centric recommendations for clinicians to prevent, diagnose, and manage patients with heart failure.
Methods
A comprehensive literature search was conducted from May 2020 to December 2020, encompassing studies, reviews, and other evidence conducted on human subjects that were published in English from MEDLINE (PubMed), EMBASE, the Cochrane Collaboration, the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, and other relevant databases. Additional relevant clinical trials and research studies, published through September 2021, were also considered. This guideline was harmonized with other American Heart Association/American College of Cardiology guidelines published through December 2021.
Structure
Heart failure remains a leading cause of morbidity and mortality globally. The 2022 heart failure guideline provides recommendations based on contemporary evidence for the treatment of these patients. The recommendations present an evidence-based approach to managing patients with heart failure, with the intent to improve quality of care and align with patients’ interests. Many recommendations from the earlier heart failure guidelines have been updated with new evidence, and new recommendations have been created when supported by published data. Value statements are provided for certain treatments with high-quality published economic analyses.
Preamble
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1.4. Scope of the Guideline
1. "2013 ACCF/AHA guideline for the management of heart failure: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2013;62:e147-e239.
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1.5. Class of Recommendation and Level of Evidence
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2.1. Stages of HF
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2.2. Classification of HF by Left Ventricular Ejection Fraction (LVEF)
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2.3. Diagnostic Algorithm for Classification of HF According to LVEF
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3.1. Epidemiology of HF
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3.2. Cause of HF
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4.1. Clinical Assessment: History and Physical Examination
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4.1.1. Initial Laboratory and Electrocardiographic Testing
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4.2. Use of Biomarkers for Prevention, Initial Diagnosis, and Risk Stratification
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14. "N-terminal-pro-brain natriuretic peptide predicts outcome after hospital discharge in heart failure patients". Circulation . 2004;110:2168-2174.
15. "A rapid bedside test for B-type peptide predicts treatment outcomes in patients admitted for decompensated heart failure: a pilot study". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2001;37:386-391.
16. "Admission B-type natriuretic peptide levels and in-hospital mortality in acute decompensated heart failure". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2007;49:1943-1950.
17. "Predischarge B-type natriuretic peptide assay for identifying patients at high risk of re-admission after decompensated heart failure". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2004;43:635-641.
18. "Primary results of the Rapid Emergency Department Heart Failure Outpatient Trial (REDHOT). A multicenter study of B-type natriuretic peptide levels, emergency department decision making, and outcomes in patients presenting with shortness of breath". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2004;44:1328-1333.
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22. "Pre-discharge, but not admission, levels of NT-proBNP predict adverse prognosis following acute LVF". Eur J Heart Fail . 2003;5:499-506.
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35. "B-type natriuretic peptide levels in obese patients with advanced heart failure". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2006;47:85-90.
36. "Obesity and suppressed B-type natriuretic peptide levels in heart failure". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2004;43:1590-1595.
37. "Effect of natriuretic peptide-guided therapy on hospitalization or cardiovascular mortality in high-risk patients with heart failure and reduced ejection fraction: a randomized clinical trial". JAMA . 2017;318:713-720.
38. "Natriuretic peptide response and outcomes in chronic heart failure with reduced ejection fraction". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2019;74:1205-1217.
39. "Economic and quality-of-life outcomes of natriuretic peptide-guided therapy for heart failure". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2018;72:2551-2562.
40. "Prognostic value of high-sensitivity troponin T in chronic heart failure: an individual patient data meta-analysis". Circulation . 2018;137:286-297.
41. "High-sensitivity cardiac troponin and new-onset heart failure: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 67,063 patients with 4,165 incident heart failure events". J Am Coll Cardiol HF . 2018;6:187-197.
42. "TACIT (High Sensitivity Troponin T Rules Out Acute Cardiac Insufficiency Trial)". Circ Heart Fail . 2019;12: e005931.
43. "Biomarkers of myocardial stress and fibrosis as predictors of mode of death in patients with chronic heart failure". J Am Coll Cardiol HF . 2014;2:260-268.
44. "Galectin-3, a marker of cardiac fibrosis, predicts incident heart failure in the community". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2012;60:1249-1256.
45. "Comparison of the diastolic stress test with a combined resting echocardiography and biomarker approach to patients with exertional dyspnea: diagnostic and prognostic implications". J Am Coll Cardiol Img . 2019;12:771-780.
46. "Limited added value of circulating inflammatory biomarkers in chronic heart failure". J Am Coll Cardiol HF . 2017;5:256-264.
47. "sST2 predicts outcome in chronic heart failure beyond NT-proBNP and high-sensitivity troponin T". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2018;72:2309-2320.
48. "Head-to-head comparison of serial soluble ST2, growth differentiation factor-15, and highly-sensitive troponin T measurements in patients with chronic heart failure". J Am Coll Cardiol HF . 2014;2:65-72.
49. "ST2 and prognosis in chronic heart failure". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2018;72:2321-2323.
50. "Renal function, congestive heart failure, and amino-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide measurement: results from the ProBNP Investigation of Dyspnea in the Emergency Department (PRIDE) Study". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2006;47:91-97.
51. "Plasma brain natriuretic peptide concentration: impact of age and gender". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2002;40:976-982.
52. "Impact of age and sex on plasma natriuretic peptide levels in healthy adults". Am J Cardiol . 2002;90:254-258.
53. "Associations among androgens, estrogens, and natriuretic peptides in young women: observations from the Dallas Heart Study". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2007;49:109-116.
4.3. Genetic Evaluation and Testing
1. "Prognosis and clinical characteristics of dilated cardiomyopathy with family history via pedigree analysis". Circ J . 2020;84:1284-1293.
2. "Inpatient detection of cardiac-inherited disease: the impact of improving family history taking". Open Heart . 2016;3: e000329.
3. "The landscape of genetic variation in dilated cardiomyopathy as surveyed by clinical DNA sequencing". Genet Med . 2014;16:601-608.
4. "Atlas of the clinical genetics of human dilated cardiomyopathy". Eur Heart J . 2015;36:1123-1135a.
5. "Integrated allelic, transcriptional, and phenomic dissection of the cardiac effects of titin truncations in health and disease". Sci Transl Med . 2015;7:270ra6.
6. "Genetic risk of arrhythmic phenotypes in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2019;74:1480-1490.
7. "Exercise increases age-related penetrance and arrhythmic risk in arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia/cardiomyopathy-associated desmosomal mutation carriers". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2013;62:1290-1297.
4.4. Evaluation With Cardiac Imaging
1. "How well can the chest radiograph diagnose left ventricular dysfunction?"J Gen Intern Med . 1996;11:625-634.
2. "Diagnostic value of B-type natriuretic peptide and chest radiographic findings in patients with acute dyspnea". Am J Med . 2004;116:363-368.
3. "Impact of echocardiography in patients hospitalized for heart failure: a prospective observational study". Arch Cardiovasc Dis . 2008;101:465-473.
4. "Left ventricular remodeling with carvedilol in patients with congestive heart failure due to ischemic heart disease. Australia-New Zealand Heart Failure Research Collaborative Group". J Am Coll Cardiol . 1997;29:1060-1066.
5. "Avoiding untimely implantable cardioverter/defibrillator implantation by intensified heart failure therapy optimization supported by the wearable cardioverter/defibrillator-the PROLONG study". J Am Heart Assoc . 2017;6: e004512.
6. "Association of change in N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide following initiation of sacubitril-valsartan treatment with cardiac structure and function in patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction". JAMA . 2019;322:1-11.
7. "Recovery of ventricular function after myocardial infarction in the reperfusion era: the healing and early afterload reducing therapy study". Ann Intern Med . 2001;134:451-458.
8. "Comparison of left ventricular ejection fraction and volumes in heart failure by echocardiography, radionuclide ventriculography and cardiovascular magnetic resonance; are they interchangeable?"Eur Heart J . 2000;21:1387-1396.
9. "Comparison of interstudy reproducibility of cardiovascular magnetic resonance with two-dimensional echocardiography in normal subjects and in patients with heart failure or left ventricular hypertrophy". Am J Cardiol . 2002;90:29-34.
10. "Dimensional accuracy of magnetic resonance in studies of the heart". Lancet . 1985;1:1360-1362.
11. "ACC/AATS/AHA/ASE/ASNC/HRS/SCAI/SCCT/SCMR/STS 2019 appropriate use criteria for multimodality imaging in the assessment of cardiac structure and function in nonvalvular heart disease: a report of the American College of Cardiology Appropriate Use Criteria Task Force, American Association for Thoracic Surgery, American Heart Association, American Society of Echocardiography, American Society of Nuclear Cardiology, Heart Rhythm Society, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, Society of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography, Society for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance, and the Society of Thoracic Surgeons". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2019;73:488-516.
12. "Comparison and reproducibility of visual echocardiographic and quantitative radionuclide left ventricular ejection fractions". Am J Cardiol . 1996;77:843-850.
13. "CT compared to MRI for functional evaluation of the right ventricle: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Eur Radiol . 2019;29:6816-6828.
14. "Noninvasive evaluation of global and regional left ventricular function using computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging: a meta-analysis". Eur Radiol . 2017;27:1640-1659.
15. "Quantification of left and right ventricular function and myocardial mass: comparison of low-radiation dose 2nd generation dual-source CT and cardiac MRI". Eur J Radiol . 2012;81:e598-e604.
16. "Cardiovascular T2-star (T2∗) magnetic resonance for the early diagnosis of myocardial iron overload". Eur Heart J . 2001;22:2171-2179.
17. "EuroCMR (European Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance) registry: results of the German pilot phase". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2009;54:1457-1466.
18. "European Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance (EuroCMR) registry-multi national results from 57 centers in 15 countries". J Cardiovasc Magn Reson . 2013;15:9.
19. "Noncontrast T1 mapping for the diagnosis of cardiac amyloidosis". J Am Coll Cardiol Img . 2013;6:488-497.
20. "Magnetic resonance in transthyretin cardiac amyloidosis". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2017;70:466-477.
21. "Native T1 mapping in differentiation of normal myocardium from diffuse disease in hypertrophic and dilated cardiomyopathy". J Am Coll Cardiol Img . 2013;6:475-484.
22. "Noncontrast myocardial T1 mapping using cardiovascular magnetic resonance for iron overload". J Magn Reson Imaging . 2015;41:1505-1511.
23. "Identification and assessment of Anderson-Fabry disease by cardiovascular magnetic resonance noncontrast myocardial T1 mapping". Circ Cardiovasc Imaging . 2013;6:392-398.
24. "Effect of myocardial ischemia during dobutamine stress echocardiography on cardiac mortality in patients with heart failure secondary to ischemic cardiomyopathy". Am J Cardiol . 2005;96:469-473.
25. "Relationship of myocardial perfusion imaging findings to outcome of patients with heart failure and suspected ischemic heart disease". Am Heart J . 2004;147:714-720.
26. "Computed tomography coronary angiography for patients with heart failure (CTA-HF): a randomized controlled trial (IMAGE-HF 1C)". Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging . 2021;22:1083-1090.
27. "Coronary angiography in worsening heart failure: determinants, findings and prognostic implications". Heart . 2018;104:606-613.
28. "Myocardial viability testing and impact of revascularization on prognosis in patients with coronary artery disease and left ventricular dysfunction: a meta-analysis". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2002;39:1151-1158.
29. "Increasing benefit from revascularization is associated with increasing amounts of myocardial hibernation: a substudy of the PARR-2 trial". J Am Coll Cardiol Img . 2009;2:1060-1068.
30. "Identification of therapeutic benefit from revascularization in patients with left ventricular systolic dysfunction: inducible ischemia versus hibernating myocardium". Circ Cardiovasc Imaging . 2013;6:363-372.
31. "Myocardial viability for decision-making concerning revascularization in patients with left ventricular dysfunction and coronary artery disease: a meta-analysis of non-randomized and randomized studies". Int J Cardiol . 2015;182:494-499.
32. "The extent of perfusion-F18-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography mismatch determines mortality in medically treated patients with chronic ischemic left ventricular dysfunction". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2005;46:1264-1269.
33. "Prevalence of negative chest radiography results in the emergency department patient with decompensated heart failure". Ann Emerg Med . 2006;47:13-18.
34. "Assessing the risk of progression from asymptomatic left ventricular dysfunction to overt heart failure: a systematic overview and meta-analysis". J Am Coll Cardiol HF . 2016;4:237-248.
35. "Prognostic implications of echocardiographically determined left ventricular mass in the Framingham Heart Study". N Engl J Med . 1990;322:1561-1566.
36. "Correlation with invasive left ventricular filling pressures and prognostic relevance of the echocardiographic diastolic parameters used in the 2016 ESC heart failure guidelines and in the 2016 ASE/EACVI recommendations: a systematic review in patients with heart failure with preserved ejection fraction". Eur J Heart Fail . 2018;20:1303-1311.
37. "Influence of ejection fraction on cardiovascular outcomes in a broad spectrum of heart failure patients". Circulation . 2005;112:3738-3744.
38. "Prognostic implications of left ventricular strain by speckle-tracking echocardiography in the general population: a meta-analysis". Vasc Health Risk Manag . 2019;15:229-251.
39. "Burden of systolic and diastolic ventricular dysfunction in the community: appreciating the scope of the heart failure epidemic". JAMA . 2003;289:194-202.
40. "Right ventricular dysfunction in left-sided heart failure with preserved versus reduced ejection fraction". Eur J Heart Fail . 2017;19:1664-1671.
41. "Recommendations for cardiac chamber quantification by echocardiography in adults: an update from the American Society of Echocardiography and the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging". J Am Soc Echocardiogr . 2015;28:1-39.e14.
42. "Recommendations for the evaluation of left ventricular diastolic function by echocardiography: an update from the American Society of Echocardiography and the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging". J Am Soc Echocardiogr . 2016;29:277-314.
43. "Global longitudinal strain by echocardiography predicts long-term risk of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in a low-risk general population: the Copenhagen City Heart Study". Circ Cardiovasc Imaging . 2017;10: e005521.
44. "Prognostic implications of global LV dysfunction: a systematic review and meta-analysis of global longitudinal strain and ejection fraction". Heart . 2014;100:1673-1680.
45. "Left ventricular longitudinal systolic function analysed by 2D speckle-tracking echocardiography in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction: a meta-analysis". Open Heart . 2017;4: e000630.
46. "Prognostic importance of impaired systolic function in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction and the impact of spironolactone". Circulation . 2015;132:402-414.
47. "Hand-carried echocardiography in heart failure and heart failure risk population: a community based prospective study". J Am Soc Echocardiogr . 2011;24:125-131.
48. "Hand-carried ultrasound performed by hospitalists: does it improve the cardiac physical examination?"Am J Med . 2009;122:35-41.
49. "Diagnostic accuracy of point-of-care lung ultrasonography and chest radiography in adults with symptoms suggestive of acute decompensated heart failure: a systematic review and meta-analysis". JAMA Netw Open . 2019;2: e190703.
50. "Lung ultrasound in acute heart failure: prevalence of pulmonary congestion and short- and long-term outcomes". J Am Coll Cardiol HF . 2019;7:849-858.
51. "Lung ultrasound integrated with clinical assessment for the diagnosis of acute decompensated heart failure in the emergency department: a randomized controlled trial". Eur J Heart Fail . 2019;21:754-766.
52. "Combined use of lung ultrasound, B-type natriuretic peptide, and echocardiography for outcome prediction in patients with acute HFrEF and HFpEF". Clin Res Cardiol . 2018;107:586-596.
53. "Long-term recovery of left ventricular function after primary angioplasty for acute myocardial infarction". Eur Heart J . 2001;22:785-790.
54. "Double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the effects of carvedilol in patients with moderate to severe heart failure. The PRECISE Trial. Prospective Randomized Evaluation of Carvedilol on Symptoms and Exercise". Circulation . 1996;94:2793-2799.
55. "Effect of cardiac resynchronization therapy on left ventricular size and function in chronic heart failure". Circulation . 2003;107:1985-1990.
56. "Factors associated with improvement in ejection fraction in clinical practice among patients with heart failure: findings from IMPROVE HF". Am Heart J . 2012;163:49-56.e2.
57. "Effects of the angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor enalapril on the long-term progression of left ventricular dysfunction in patients with heart failure. SOLVD Investigators". Circulation . 1992;86:431-438.
58. "Effect of empagliflozin on left ventricular volumes in patients with type 2 diabetes, or prediabetes, and heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (SUGAR-DM-HF)". Circulation . 2021;143:516-525.
59. "Evolution of functional mitral regurgitation and prognosis in medically managed heart failure patients with reduced ejection fraction". J Am Coll Cardiol HF . 2017;5:652-659.
60. "Heart failure with recovered left ventricular ejection fraction: JACC Scientific Expert Panel". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2020;76:719-734.
61. "2018 AHA/ACC guideline for the management of adults with congenital heart disease: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2019;73:e81-e192.
62. "Direct comparison of the diagnostic capability of cardiac magnetic resonance and endomyocardial biopsy in patients with heart failure". Eur J Heart Fail . 2013;15:166-175.
63. "Performance of delayed-enhancement magnetic resonance imaging with gadoversetamide contrast for the detection and assessment of myocardial infarction: an international, multicenter, double-blinded, randomized trial". Circulation . 2008;117:629-637.
64. "Contrast-enhanced MRI and routine single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) perfusion imaging for detection of subendocardial myocardial infarcts: an imaging study". Lancet . 2003;361:374-379.
65. "Differentiation of heart failure related to dilated cardiomyopathy and coronary artery disease using gadolinium-enhanced cardiovascular magnetic resonance". Circulation . 2003;108:54-59.
66. "Late gadolinium enhancement-cardiovascular magnetic resonance identifies coronary artery disease as the aetiology of left ventricular dysfunction in acute new-onset congestive heart failure". Eur J Echocardiogr . 2009;10:968-974.
67. "Cardiovascular magnetic resonance in nonischemic myocardial inflammation: expert recommendations". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2018;72:3158-3176.
68. "Association between extracellular matrix expansion quantified by cardiovascular magnetic resonance and short-term mortality". Circulation . 2012;126:1206-1216.
69. "Equilibrium contrast cardiovascular magnetic resonance for the measurement of diffuse myocardial fibrosis: preliminary validation in humans". Circulation . 2010;122:138-144.
70. "Comprehensive validation of cardiovascular magnetic resonance techniques for the assessment of myocardial extracellular volume". Circ Cardiovasc Imaging . 2013;6:373-383.
71. "Comparing CMR mapping methods and myocardial patterns toward heart failure outcomes in nonischemic dilated cardiomyopathy". J Am Coll Cardiol Img . 2019;12:1659-1669.
72. "CMR imaging predicts death and other adverse events in suspected cardiac sarcoidosis". J Am Coll Cardiol Img . 2013;6:501-511.
73. "Late gadolinium enhancement on cardiac magnetic resonance predicts adverse cardiovascular outcomes in nonischemic cardiomyopathy: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Circ Cardiovasc Imaging . 2014;7:250-258.
74. "Impact of unrecognized myocardial scar detected by cardiac magnetic resonance imaging on event-free survival in patients presenting with signs or symptoms of coronary artery disease". Circulation . 2006;113:2733-2743.
75. "Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging findings and the risk of cardiovascular events in patients with recent myocardial infarction or suspected or known coronary artery disease: a systematic review of prognostic studies". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2014;63:1031-1045.
76. "Use of cardiovascular magnetic resonance for risk stratification in chronic heart failure: prognostic value of late gadolinium enhancement in patients with non-ischaemic dilated cardiomyopathy". Heart . 2011;97:727-732.
77. "Prognostic value of late gadolinium enhancement cardiovascular magnetic resonance in cardiac amyloidosis". Circulation . 2015;132:1570-1579.
78. "OUTSMART HF: a randomized controlled trial of routine versus selective cardiac magnetic resonance for patients with nonischemic heart failure (IMAGE-HF 1B)". Circulation . 2020;141:818-827.
79. "Risk factors for congestive heart failure in US men and women: NHANES I epidemiologic follow-up study". Arch Intern Med . 2001;161:996-1002.
80. "F-18-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography imaging-assisted management of patients with severe left ventricular dysfunction and suspected coronary disease: a randomized, controlled trial (PARR-2)". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2007;50:2002-2012.
81. "Myocardial viability and survival in ischemic left ventricular dysfunction". N Engl J Med . 2011;364:1617-1625.
82. "Myocardial viability and long-term outcomes in ischemic cardiomyopathy". N Engl J Med . 2019;381:739-748.
83. "2013 ACCF/ACR/ASE/ASNC/SCCT/SCMR appropriate utilization of cardiovascular imaging in heart failure: a joint report of the American College of Radiology Appropriateness Criteria Committee and the American College of Cardiology Foundation Appropriate Use Criteria Task Force". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2013;61:2207-2231.
4.5. Invasive Evaluation
1. "The role of endomyocardial biopsy in the management of cardiovascular disease: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association, the American College of Cardiology, and the European Society of Cardiology. Endorsed by the Heart Failure Society of America and the Heart Failure Association of the European Society of Cardiology". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2007;50:1914-1931.
2. "Tafamidis treatment for patients with transthyretin amyloid cardiomyopathy". N Engl J Med . 2018;379:1007-1016.
3. "Evaluation study of congestive heart failure and pulmonary artery catheterization effectiveness: the ESCAPE trial". JAMA . 2005;294:1625-1633.
4. "Impact of the pulmonary artery catheter in critically ill patients: meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials". JAMA . 2005;294:1664-1670.
5. "Complications of transvenous right ventricular endomyocardial biopsy in adult patients with cardiomyopathy: a seven-year survey of 546 consecutive diagnostic procedures in a tertiary referral center". J Am Coll Cardiol . 1992;19:43-47.
6. "Acute thrombus formation as a complication of right ventricular biopsy". J Am Soc Echocardiogr . 2010;23:1039-1044.
7. "ACC/AATS/AHA/ASE/ASNC/SCAI/SCCT/STS 2017 appropriate use criteria for coronary revascularization in patients with stable ischemic heart disease". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2017;69:2212-2241.
8. "Coronary-artery bypass surgery in patients with left ventricular dysfunction". N Engl J Med . 2011;364:1607-1616.
9. "Coronary-artery bypass surgery in patients with ischemic cardiomyopathy". N Engl J Med . 2016;374:1511-1520.
4.6. Wearables and Remote Monitoring (Including Telemonitoring and Device Monitoring)
1. "Wireless pulmonary artery haemodynamic monitoring in chronic heart failure: a randomised controlled trial". Lancet . 2011;377:658-666.
2. "Wireless pulmonary artery pressure monitoring guides management to reduce decompensation in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction". Circ Heart Fail . 2014;7:935-944.
3. "Pulmonary artery pressure-guided management of patients with heart failure and reduced ejection fraction". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2017;70:1875-1886.
4. "Haemodynamic-guided management of heart failure (GUIDE-HF): a randomised controlled trial". Lancet . 2021;398:991-1001.
5. "Pulmonary artery pressure-guided heart failure management: US cost-effectiveness analyses using the results of the CHAMPION clinical trial". Eur J Heart Fail . 2017;19:652-660.
6. "Cost-effectiveness of implantable pulmonary artery pressure monitoring in chronic heart failure". J Am Coll Cardiol HF . 2016;4:368-375.
7. "Cost-effectiveness of remote cardiac monitoring with the CardioMEMS heart failure system". Clin Cardiol . 2017;40:430-436.
8. "Impact of practice-based management of pulmonary artery pressures in 2000 patients implanted with the CardioMEMS sensor". Circulation . 2017;135:1509-1517.
9. "Ambulatory hemodynamic monitoring reduces heart failure hospitalizations in "real-world" clinical practice". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2017;69:2357-2365.
10. "Association of ambulatory hemodynamic monitoring of heart failure with clinical outcomes in a concurrent matched cohort analysis". JAMA Cardiol . 2019;4:556-563.
11. "Effectiveness of remote patient monitoring after discharge of hospitalized patients with heart failure: the Better Effectiveness After Transition-Heart Failure (BEAT-HF) randomized clinical trial". JAMA Intern Med . 2016;176:310-318.
12. "Telemonitoring versus standard care in heart failure: a randomised multicentre trial". Eur J Heart Fail . 2020;22:985-994.
13. "Fluid status telemedicine alerts for heart failure: a randomized controlled trial". Eur Heart J . 2016;37:3154-3363.
14. "Effects of remote monitoring on clinical outcomes and use of healthcare resources in heart failure patients with biventricular defibrillators: results of the MORE-CARE multicentre randomized controlled trial". Eur J Heart Fail . 2017;19:416-425.
15. "Implant-based multiparameter telemonitoring of patients with heart failure (IN-TIME): a randomised controlled trial". Lancet . 2014;384:583-590.
16. "Effect of telemonitoring of cardiac implantable electronic devices on healthcare utilization: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials in patients with heart failure". Eur J Heart Fail . 2016;18:195-204.
17. "Remote management of heart failure using implantable electronic devices". Eur Heart J . 2017;38:2352-2360.
18. "Remote monitoring of implantable cardioverter-defibrillators: a systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical outcomes". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2015;65:2591-2600.
19. "Overview of the 2011 Food and Drug Administration circulatory system devices panel of the medical devices advisory committee meeting on the CardioMEMS Champion Heart Failure Monitoring System". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2013;61:1571-1576.
20. "CardioMEMS HF for the management of heart failure-effectiveness and value". JAMA Intern Med . 2016;176:1551-1552.
21. "Real-world data on heart failure readmission reduction: real or real uncertain?"J Am Coll Cardiol . 2017;69:2366-2368.
22. "Structured telephone support or non-invasive telemonitoring for patients with heart failure". Cochrane Database Syst Rev . 2015. CD007228.
23. "Efficacy of telemedical interventional management in patients with heart failure (TIM-HF2): a randomised, controlled, parallel-group, unmasked trial". Lancet . 2018;392:1047-1057.
4.7. Exercise and Functional Capacity Testing
1. "Nomenclature and Criteria for Diagnosis of Diseases of the Heart and Great Vessels". 9th ed. Little, Brown & Co, 1994.
2. "Higher New York Heart Association classes and increased mortality and hospitalization in patients with heart failure and preserved left ventricular function". Am Heart J . 2006;151:444-450.
3. "One-year mortality among unselected outpatients with heart failure". Eur Heart J . 2002;23:1861-1866.
4. "Comprehensive analysis of cardiopulmonary exercise testing and mortality in patients with systolic heart failure: the Henry Ford Hospital cardiopulmonary exercise testing (FIT-CPX) project". J Card Fail . 2015;21:710-718.
5. "Cardiopulmonary exercise testing and prognosis in heart failure due to systolic left ventricular dysfunction: a validation study of the European Society of Cardiology Guidelines and Recommendations (2008) and further developments". Eur J Prev Cardiol . 2012;19:32-40.
6. "The 2013 International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation Guidelines for mechanical circulatory support: executive summary". J Heart Lung Transplant . 2013;32:157-187.
7. "Value of peak exercise oxygen consumption for optimal timing of cardiac transplantation in ambulatory patients with heart failure". Circulation . 1991;83:778-786.
8. "The 2016 International Society for Heart Lung Transplantation listing criteria for heart transplantation: a 10-year update". J Heart Lung Transplant . 2016;35:1-23.
9. "Six minute walk test predicts long-term all-cause mortality and heart failure rehospitalization in African-American patients hospitalized with acute decompensated heart failure". J Card Fail . 2009;15:130-135.
10. "Prediction of mortality and morbidity with a 6-minute walk test in patients with left ventricular dysfunction. SOLVD Investigators". JAMA . 1993;270:1702-1707.
11. "The 6-minute walk is associated with frailty and predicts mortality in older adults with heart failure". Congest Heart Fail . 2010;16:208-213.
12. "6-min walk test provides prognostic utility comparable to cardiopulmonary exercise testing in ambulatory outpatients with systolic heart failure". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2012;60:2653-2661.
13. "6 min walk test is a strong independent predictor of death in outpatients with heart failure". ESC Heart Fail . 2020;7:2904-2911.
14. "Variables measured during cardiopulmonary exercise testing as predictors of mortality in chronic systolic heart failure". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2016;67:780-789.
15. "Six-minute walk distance predicts 30-day readmission after acute heart failure hospitalization". Heart Lung . 2017;46:287-292.
16. "Inspiratory muscle strength and six-minute walking distance in heart failure: prognostic utility in a 10 years follow up cohort study". PLoS One . 2019;14: e0220638.
17. "An official American Thoracic Society statement: update on the mechanisms, assessment, and management of dyspnea". Am J Respir Crit Care Med . 2012;185:435-452.
18. "Hemodynamic correlates and diagnostic role of cardiopulmonary exercise testing in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction". J Am Coll Cardiol HF . 2018;6:665-675.
19. "The 6-minute walk: a new measure of exercise capacity in patients with chronic heart failure". Can Med Assoc J . 1985;132:919-923.
20. "Test-retest reliability of six-minute walk tests over a one-year period in patients with chronic heart failure". Clin Physiol Funct Imaging . 2020;40:284-289.
21. "Examination of the six minute walk test to determine functional capacity in people with chronic heart failure: a systematic review". Cardiopulm Phys Ther J . 2010;21:13-21.
22. "Cardiopulmonary exercise testing: what is its value?"J Am Coll Cardiol . 2017;70:1618-1636.
23. "Limitations of the New York Heart Association functional classification system and self-reported walking distances in chronic heart failure". Heart . 2007;93:476-482.
24. "Usefulness of peak exercise oxygen consumption and the heart failure survival score to predict survival in patients >65 years of age with heart failure". Am J Cardiol . 2009;103:998-1002.
25. "Impact of beta-blocker therapy on functional capacity criteria for heart transplant listing". J Heart Lung Transplant . 2003;22:78-86.
26. "Timing of cardiac transplantation in patients with heart failure receiving beta-adrenergic blockers". J Heart Lung Transplant . 2003;22:1141-1148.
27. "Prognostic value of 6-minute walk corridor test in patients with mild to moderate heart failure: comparison with other methods of functional evaluation". Eur J Heart Fail . 2003;5:247-252.
28. "Clinician’s guide to cardiopulmonary exercise testing in adults: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association". Circulation . 2010;122:191-225.
4.8. Initial and Serial Evaluation: Clinical Assessment: HF Risk Scoring
1. "Development and prospective validation of a clinical index to predict survival in ambulatory patients referred for cardiac transplant evaluation". Circulation . 1997;95:2660-2667.
2. "The Seattle Heart Failure Model: prediction of survival in heart failure". Circulation . 2006;113:1424-1433.
3. "Predicting survival in heart failure: a risk score based on 39 372 patients from 30 studies". Eur Heart J . 2013;34:1404-1413.
4. "Predictors of mortality and morbidity in patients with chronic heart failure". Eur Heart J . 2006;27:65-75.
5. "Predictors of fatal and non-fatal outcomes in the Controlled Rosuvastatin Multinational Trial in Heart Failure (CORONA): incremental value of apolipoprotein A-1, high-sensitivity C-reactive peptide and N-terminal pro B-type natriuretic peptide". Eur J Heart Fail . 2009;11:281-291.
6. "Prognostic models derived in PARADIGM-HF and validated in ATMOSPHERE and the Swedish Heart Failure Registry to predict mortality and morbidity in chronic heart failure". JAMA Cardiol . 2020;5:432-441.
7. "Factors related to morbidity and mortality in patients with chronic heart failure with systolic dysfunction: the HF-ACTION predictive risk score model". Circ Heart Fail . 2012;5:63-71.
8. "Clinical factors related to morbidity and mortality in high-risk heart failure patients: the GUIDE-IT predictive model and risk score". Eur J Heart Fail . 2019;21:770-778.
9. "Factors associated with outcome in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction: findings from the Irbesartan in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction Study (I-PRESERVE)". Circ Heart Fail . 2011;4:27-35.
10. "Machine learning prediction of mortality and hospitalization in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction". J Am Coll Cardiol HF . 2020;8:12-21.
11. "Risk stratification for in-hospital mortality in acutely decompensated heart failure: classification and regression tree analysis". JAMA . 2005;293:572-580.
12. "A validated risk score for in-hospital mortality in patients with heart failure from the American Heart Association Get With The Guidelines program". Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes . 2010;3:25-32.
13. "Predicting mortality among patients hospitalized for heart failure: derivation and validation of a clinical model". JAMA . 2003;290:2581-2587.
14. "Triage after hospitalization with advanced heart failure: the ESCAPE (Evaluation Study of Congestive Heart Failure and Pulmonary Artery Catheterization Effectiveness) risk model and discharge score". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2010;55:872-878.
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September 29, 2021 .18. "EFFECT heart failure mortality prediction". 2016. http://wwwccortca/Research/CHFRiskModelhtml. Accessed
September 16, 2020 .
5.1. Patients at Risk Factor for HF (Stage A-Primary Prevention)
1. "Treatment of hypertension in patients 80 years of age or older". N Engl J Med . 2008;358:1887-1898.
2. "Blood pressure lowering for prevention of cardiovascular disease and death: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Lancet . 2016;387:957-967.
3. "Prevention of heart failure by antihypertensive drug treatment in older persons with isolated systolic hypertension. SHEP Cooperative Research Group". JAMA . 1997;278:212-216.
4. "Randomised double-blind comparison of placebo and active treatment for older patients with isolated systolic hypertension. The Systolic Hypertension in Europe (Syst-Eur) Trial Investigators". Lancet . 1997;350:757-764.
5. "Effects of blood pressure-lowering treatment. 6. Prevention of heart failure and new-onset heart failure-meta-analyses of randomized trials". J Hypertens . 2016;34:373-384.
6. "Effect of intensive blood pressure treatment on heart failure events in the Systolic Blood Pressure Reduction Intervention Trial". Circ Heart Fail . 2017;10: e003613.
7. "A randomized trial of intensive versus standard blood-pressure control". N Engl J Med . 2015;373:2103-2116.
8. "The progression from hypertension to congestive heart failure". JAMA . 1996;275:1557-1562.
9. "Systolic blood pressure and incident heart failure in the elderly. The Cardiovascular Health Study and the Health, Ageing and Body Composition Study". Heart . 2011;97:1304-1311.
10. "Canagliflozin and cardiovascular and renal events in type 2 diabetes". N Engl J Med . 2017;377:644-657.
11. "Dapagliflozin and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes". N Engl J Med . 2019;380:347-357.
12. "Empagliflozin, cardiovascular outcomes, and mortality in type 2 diabetes". N Engl J Med . 2015;373:2117-2128.
13. "Contribution of major lifestyle risk factors for incident heart failure in older adults: the Cardiovascular Health Study". J Am Coll Cardiol HF . 2015;3:520-528.
14. "Lifestyle factors in relation to heart failure among Finnish men and women". Circ Heart Fail . 2011;4:607-612.
15. "Effects of physical activity and sedentary time on the risk of heart failure". Circ Heart Fail . 2014;7:21-27.
16. "Joint effects of physical activity, body mass index, waist circumference, and waist-to-hip ratio on the risk of heart failure". Circulation . 2010;121:237-244.
17. "American Heart Association's Life’s Simple 7: avoiding heart failure and preserving cardiac structure and function". Am J Med . 2015;128:970-976.e2.
18. "Adherence to a Mediterranean diet is associated with reduced risk of heart failure in men". Eur J Heart Fail . 2016;18:253-259.
19. "Consistency with the DASH diet and incidence of heart failure". Arch Intern Med . 2009;169:851-857.
20. "Relation of consistency with the dietary approaches to stop hypertension diet and incidence of heart failure in men aged 45 to 79 years". Am J Cardiol . 2009;104:1416-1420.
21. "Dietary patterns and incident heart failure in U.S. adults without known coronary disease". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2019;73:2036-2045.
22. "Natriuretic peptide-based screening and collaborative care for heart failure: the STOP-HF randomized trial". JAMA . 2013;310:66-74.
23. "PONTIAC (NT-proBNP selected prevention of cardiac events in a population of diabetic patients without a history of cardiac disease): a prospective randomized controlled trial". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2013;62:1365-1372.
24. "Profile for estimating risk of heart failure". Arch Intern Med . 1999;159:1197-1204.
25. "Incident heart failure prediction in the elderly: the health ABC heart failure score". Circ Heart Fail . 2008;1:125-133.
26. "Prediction of incident heart failure in general practice: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study". Circ Heart Fail . 2012;5:422-429.
27. "Lifestyle modifications for preventing and treating heart failure". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2018;72:2391-2405.
28. "2019 ACC/AHA guideline on the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2019;74:e177-e232.
29. "10-year risk equations for incident heart failure in the general population". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2019;73:2388-2397.
30. "2017 ACC/AHA/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/AGS/APhA/ASH/ASPC/NMA/PCNA guideline for the prevention, detection, evaluation, and management of high blood pressure in adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2018;71:e127-e248.
31. "SGLT2 inhibitors for primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular and renal outcomes in type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cardiovascular outcome trials". Lancet . 2019;393:31-39.
32. "The transition from hypertension to heart failure: contemporary update". J Am Coll Cardiol HF . 2017;5:543-551.
33. "Effects of sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors for the treatment of patients with heart failure: proposal of a novel mechanism of action". JAMA Cardiol . 2017;2:1025-1029.
34. "SGLT2 inhibitors and mechanisms of cardiovascular benefit: a state-of-the-art review". Diabetologia . 2018;61:2108-2117.
35. "Practical guide to prescribing sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors for cardiologists". J Am Coll Cardiol HF . 2019;7:169-172.
36. "Use of risk models to predict death in the next year among individual ambulatory patients with heart failure". JAMA Cardiol . 2017;2:435-441.
37. "How to read articles that use machine learning: users’ guides to the medical literature". JAMA . 2019;322:1806-1816.
6.1. Management of Stage B: Preventing the Syndrome of Clinical HF in Patients With Pre-HF
1. "Effect of enalapril on mortality and the development of heart failure in asymptomatic patients with reduced left ventricular ejection fractions". N Engl J Med . 1992;327:685-691.
2. "Effect of captopril on mortality and morbidity in patients with left ventricular dysfunction after myocardial infarction: results of the Survival and Ventricular Enlargement Trial. The SAVE Investigators". N Engl J Med . 1992;327:669-677.
3. "Effect of enalapril on 12-year survival and life expectancy in patients with left ventricular systolic dysfunction: a follow-up study". Lancet . 2003;361:1843-1848.
4. "A clinical trial of the angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor trandolapril in patients with left ventricular dysfunction after myocardial infarction. Trandolapril Cardiac Evaluation (TRACE) Study Group". N Engl J Med . 1995;333:1670-1676.
5. "Intensive statin therapy in acute coronary syndromes and stable coronary heart disease: a comparative meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials". Heart . 2007;93:914-921.
6. "N-terminal Pro-B-type natriuretic peptide, vascular disease risk, and cholesterol reduction among 20,536 patients in the MRC/BHF heart protection study". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2007;49:311-319.
7. "The effect of statin therapy on heart failure events: a collaborative meta-analysis of unpublished data from major randomized trials". Eur Heart J . 2015;36:1536-1546.
8. "Intensive statin therapy and the risk of hospitalization for heart failure after an acute coronary syndrome in the PROVE IT-TIMI 22 study". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2006;47:2326-2331.
9. "Comparative effect of atorvastatin (80 mg) versus simvastatin (20 to 40 mg) in preventing hospitalizations for heart failure in patients with previous myocardial infarction". Am J Cardiol . 2009;103:1381-1385.
10. "Valsartan, captopril, or both in myocardial infarction complicated by heart failure, left ventricular dysfunction, or both". N Engl J Med . 2003;349:1893-1906.
11. "Effect of carvedilol on outcome after myocardial infarction in patients with left-ventricular dysfunction: the CAPRICORN randomised trial". Lancet . 2001;357:1385-1390.
12. "Beta-adrenergic blocking agent use and mortality in patients with asymptomatic and symptomatic left ventricular systolic dysfunction: a post hoc analysis of the studies of left ventricular dysfunction". J Am Coll Cardiol . 1999;33:916-923.
13. "Additive beneficial effects of beta-blockers to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors in the Survival and Ventricular Enlargement (SAVE) Study. SAVE Investigators". J Am Coll Cardiol . 1997;29:229-236.
14. "Prophylactic implantation of a defibrillator in patients with myocardial infarction and reduced ejection fraction". N Engl J Med . 2002;346:877-883.
15. "A randomized, placebo-controlled trial assessing the effects of rosiglitazone on echocardiographic function and cardiac status in type 2 diabetic patients with New York Heart Association Functional class I or II heart failure". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2007;49:1696-1704.
16. "The effect of diltiazem on mortality and reinfarction after myocardial infarction". N Engl J Med . 1988;319:385-392.
17. "Diltiazem increases late-onset congestive heart failure in postinfarction patients with early reduction in ejection fraction". Circulation . 1991;83:52-60.
18. "Prevalence and prognostic significance of heart failure stages: application of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association heart failure staging criteria in the community". Circulation . 2007;115:1563-1570.
19. "Heart failure stages among older adults in the community: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities study". Circulation . 2017;135:224-240.
20. "Diagnosis of nonischemic stage B heart failure in type 2 diabetes mellitus: optimal parameters for prediction of heart failure". J Am Coll Cardiol Img . 2018;11:1390-1400.
21. "Prevalence, neurohormonal correlates, and prognosis of heart failure stages in the community". J Am Coll Cardiol HF . 2016;4:808-815.
22. "Prognostic implications of left ventricular strain by speckle-tracking echocardiography in the general population: a meta-analysis". Vasc Health Risk Manag . 2019;15:229-251.
23. "Global longitudinal strain by echocardiography predicts long-term risk of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in a low-risk general population: the Copenhagen City Heart Study". Circ Cardiovasc Imaging . 2017;10: e005521.
24. "Assessing the risk of progression from asymptomatic left ventricular dysfunction to overt heart failure: a systematic overview and meta-analysis". J Am Coll Cardiol HF . 2016;4:237-248.
25. "Natural history of asymptomatic left ventricular systolic dysfunction in the community". Circulation . 2003;108:977-982.
26. "Echocardiographic screening for non-ischaemic stage B heart failure in the community". Eur J Heart Fail . 2016;18:1331-1339.
27. "Assessing the risk of progression from asymptomatic left ventricular dysfunction to overt heart failure: a systematic overview and meta-analysis". J Am Coll Cardiol HF . 2016;4:237-248.
28. "The development of heart failure in patients with diabetes mellitus and pre-clinical diastolic dysfunction a population-based study". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2010;55:300-305.
29. "Progression of left ventricular diastolic dysfunction and risk of heart failure". JAMA . 2011;306:856-863.
30. "Subclinical myocardial impairment in metabolic diseases". J Am Coll Cardiol Img . 2017;10:692-703.
31. "Subclinical LV dysfunction and 10-year outcomes in type 2 diabetes mellitus". Heart . 2015;101:1061-1066.
32. "Early aldosterone blockade in acute myocardial infarction: the ALBATROSS randomized clinical trial". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2016;67:1917-1927.
33. "Early eplerenone treatment in patients with acute ST-elevation myocardial infarction without heart failure: the Randomized Double-Blind Reminder Study". Eur Heart J . 2014;35:2295-2302.
34. "Eplerenone, a selective aldosterone blocker, in patients with left ventricular dysfunction after myocardial infarction". N Engl J Med . 2003;348:1309-1321.
35. "Prospective ARNI vs. ACE inhibitor trial to DetermIne Superiority in reducing heart failure Events after Myocardial Infarction (PARADISE-MI): design and baseline characteristics". Eur J Heart Fail . 2021;23:1040-1048.
36. "Effect of captopril on progressive ventricular dilatation after anterior myocardial infarction". N Engl J Med . 1988;319:80-86.
37. "Treatment of patients with symptomless left ventricular dysfunction after myocardial infarction". Lancet . 1988;1:255-259.
38. "VALsartan In Acute myocardial iNfarcTion (VALIANT) trial: baseline characteristics in context". Eur J Heart Fail . 2003;5:537-544.
39. "Effects of losartan and captopril on mortality and morbidity in high-risk patients after acute myocardial infarction: the OPTIMAAL randomised trial. Optimal Trial in Myocardial Infarction with Angiotensin II Antagonist Losartan". Lancet . 2002;360:752-760.
40. "Angiotensin-receptor blockade in acute myocardial infarction-a matter of dose". N Engl J Med . 2003;349:1963-1965.
41. "Effects of carvedilol on left ventricular remodeling after acute myocardial infarction: the CAPRICORN Echo Substudy". Circulation . 2004;109:201-206.
42. "2018 AHA/ACC/AACVPR/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/ADA/AGS/APhA/ASPC/NLA/PCNA guideline on the management of blood cholesterol: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2019;73:e285-e350.
43. "Metoprolol reverses left ventricular remodeling in patients with asymptomatic systolic dysfunction: the REversal of VEntricular Remodeling with Toprol-XL (REVERT) trial". Circulation . 2007;116:49-56.
44. "Beta-blockers for heart failure with reduced, mid-range, and preserved ejection fraction: an individual patient-level analysis of double-blind randomized trials". Eur Heart J . 2018;39:26-35.
45. "Diltiazem improves cardiac function and exercise capacity in patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Results of the diltiazem in dilated cardiomyopathy trial". Circulation . 1996;94:346-352.
46. "Effect of verapamil on mortality and major events after acute myocardial infarction (the Danish Verapamil Infarction Trial II--DAVIT II)". Am J Cardiol . 1990;66:779-785.
47. "Pioglitazone use and heart failure in patients with type 2 diabetes and preexisting cardiovascular disease: data from the PROactive study (PROactive 08)". Diabetes Care . 2007;30:2773-2778.
48. "Heart failure events with rosiglitazone in type 2 diabetes: data from the RECORD clinical trial". Eur Heart J . 2010;31:824-831.
49. "Congestive heart failure and cardiovascular death in patients with prediabetes and type 2 diabetes given thiazolidinediones: a meta-analysis of randomised clinical trials". Lancet . 2007;370:1129-1136.
50. "Pioglitazone and heart failure: results from a controlled study in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and systolic dysfunction". J Card Fail . 2008;14:445-452.
51. "2013 ACCF/AHA guideline for the management of ST-elevation myocardial infarction: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2013;61:e78-e140.
52. "2014 AHA/ACC guideline for the management of patients with non-ST-elevation acute coronary syndromes: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2014;64:e139-e228.
53. "2015 ACC/AHA/SCAI focused update on primary percutaneous coronary intervention for patients with st-elevation myocardial infarction: an update of the 2011 ACCF/AHA/SCAI guideline for percutaneous coronary intervention and the 2013 ACCF/AHA guideline for the management of ST-elevation myocardial infarction". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2016;67:1235-1250.
54. "2021 ACC/AHA/SCAI guideline for coronary artery revascularization: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Joint Committee on Clinical Practice Guidelines". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2022;79:e21-e129.
55. "2014 ACC/AHA/AATS/PCNA/SCAI/STS focused update of the guideline for the diagnosis and management of patients with stable ischemic heart disease: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines, and the American Association for Thoracic Surgery, Preventive Cardiovascular Nurses Association, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, and Society of Thoracic Surgeons". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2014;64:1929-1949.
56. "2011 ACCF/AHA guideline for coronary artery bypass graft surgery. a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Developed in collaboration with the American Association for Thoracic Surgery, Society of Cardiovascular Anesthesiologists, and Society of Thoracic Surgeons". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2011;58:e123-e210.
57. "2017 AHA/ACC focused update of the 2014 AHA/ACC guideline for the management of patients with valvular heart disease: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2017;70:252-289.
58. "2020 ACC/AHA guideline for the management of patients with valvular heart disease: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Joint Committee on Clinical Practice Guidelines". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2021;77:e25-e197.
59. "2018 AHA/ACC guideline for the management of adults with congenital heart disease: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2019;73:e81-e192.
7.1.1. Self-Care Support in HF
1. "Systematic review of multidisciplinary interventions in heart failure". Heart . 2005;91:899-906.
2. "Multidisciplinary strategies for the management of heart failure patients at high risk for admission: a systematic review of randomized trials". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2004;44:810-819.
3. "Effectiveness of the pharmacist-involved multidisciplinary management of heart failure to improve hospitalizations and mortality rates in 4630 patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials". J Card Fail . 2019;25:744-756.
4. "Disease management interventions for heart failure". Cochrane Database Syst Rev . 2019;1:CD002752.
5. "Do self-management interventions work in patients with heart failure? An individual patient data meta-analysis". Circulation . 2016;133:1189-1198.
6. "Structured telephone support or non-invasive telemonitoring for patients with heart failure". Cochrane Database Syst Rev . 2015. CD007228.
7. "Structured telephone support or telemonitoring programmes for patients with chronic heart failure". Cochrane Database Syst Rev . 2010. CD007228.
8. "Effects of self-management intervention on health outcomes of patients with heart failure: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials". BMC Cardiovasc Disord . 2006;6:43.
9. "Medication adherence interventions improve heart failure mortality and readmission rates: systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled trials". J Am Heart Assoc . 2016;5: e002606.
10. "SARS-CoV-2 vaccine effectiveness in a high-risk national population in a real-world setting". Ann Intern Med . 2021;174:1404-1408.
11. "Influenza vaccination and outcome in heart failure". Am J Cardiol . 2020;128:134-139.
12. "Influenza vaccine in heart failure". Circulation . 2019;139:575-586.
13. "Influenza vaccination and risk of hospitalization in patients with heart failure: a self-controlled case series study". Eur Heart J . 2017;38:326-333.
14. "Influenza vaccination in patients with chronic heart failure: the PARADIGM-HF trial". J Am Coll Cardiol HF . 2016;4:152-158.
15. "Effects of influenza vaccine on mortality and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with cardiovascular disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis". J Am Heart Assoc . 2021;10: e019636.
16. "Higher risk for incident heart failure and cardiovascular mortality among community-dwelling octogenarians without pneumococcal vaccination". ESC Heart Fail . 2016;3:11-17.
17. "Depression and multiple rehospitalizations in patients with heart failure". Clin Cardiol . 2016;39:257-262.
18. "Major depression and long-term survival of patients with heart failure". Psychosom Med . 2016;78:896-903.
19. "Long-term effect of social relationships on mortality in patients with congestive heart failure". Int J Psychiatry Med . 2004;34:207-217.
20. "Social relationships and mortality in patients with congestive heart failure". J Psychosom Res . 2001;51:521-527.
21. "The impact of perceived and objective social isolation on hospital readmission in patients with heart failure: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies". Gen Hosp Psychiatry . 2019;60:27-36.
22. "Social support and self-care in heart failure". J Cardiovasc Nurs . 2011;26:439-445.
23. "Frailty and the risk of all-cause mortality and hospitalization in chronic heart failure: a meta-analysis". ESC Heart Fail . 2020;7:3427-3437.
24. "Frailty syndrome and self-care ability in elderly patients with heart failure". Clin Interv Aging . 2015;10:871-877.
25. "Health literacy and outcomes among patients with heart failure: a systematic review and meta-analysis". J Am Coll Cardiol HF . 2020;8:451-460.
26. "Relationship between literacy, knowledge, self-care behaviors, and heart failure-related quality of life among patients with heart failure". J Gen Intern Med . 2011;26:979-986.
27. "Team-based care for managing cardiac comorbidities in heart failure". Heart Fail Clin . 2015;11:407-417.
28. "Team-based care for outpatients with heart failure". Heart Fail Clin . 2015;11:379-405.
29. "Team-based care for managing noncardiac conditions in patients with heart failure". Heart Fail Clin . 2015;11:419-429.
30. "Team-based care for advanced heart failure". Heart Fail Clin . 2015;11:467-477.
31. "Multidisciplinary management of chronic heart failure: principles and future trends". Clin Ther . 2015;37:2225-2233.
32. "Team management of patients with heart failure: a statement for healthcare professionals from the Cardiovascular Nursing Council of the American Heart Association". Circulation . 2000;102:2443-2456.
33. "Assessing the quality and comparative effectiveness of team-based care for heart failure: who, what, where, when, and how". Heart Fail Clin . 2015;11:499-506.
34. "State of the science: promoting self-care in persons with heart failure: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association". Circulation . 2009;120:1141-1163.
35. "Self-care for the prevention and management of cardiovascular disease and stroke: a scientific statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association". J Am Heart Assoc . 2017;6: e006997.
36. "Role of self-care in the patient with heart failure". Curr Cardiol Rep . 2012;14:265-275.
37. "Self care in patients with chronic heart failure". Nat Rev Cardiol . 2011;8:644-654.
38. "Knowledge is insufficient for self-care among heart failure patients with psychological distress". Health Psychol . 2014;33:588-596.
39. "mHealth education interventions in heart failure". Cochrane Database Syst Rev . 2020;7:CD011845.
40. "Effects of an educational intervention on heart failure knowledge, self-care behaviors, and health-related quality of life of patients with heart failure: exploring the role of depression". Patient Educ Couns . 2020;103:1201-1208.
41. "Randomized, controlled trial to improve self-care in patients with heart failure living in rural areas". Circulation . 2014;130:256-264.
42. "Effect of patient-centered transitional care services on clinical outcomes in patients hospitalized for heart failure: the PACT-HF randomized clinical trial". JAMA . 2019;321:753-761.
43. "Cardiac remodeling and pre-eclampsia: an overview of microRNA expression patterns". Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol . 2018;52:310-317.
44. "Coronavirus disease-2019 and heart failure: a scientific statement from the Heart Failure Society of America". J Card Fail . 2021;S1071-9164:21: 00354-00357.
45. "Clinical outcomes in patients with heart failure hospitalized with COVID-19". J Am Coll Cardiol HF . 2021;9:65-73.
46. "Temporal trends in decompensated heart failure and outcomes during COVID-19: a multisite report from heart failure referral centres in London". Eur J Heart Fail . 2020;22:2219-2224.
47. "Impact of heart failure on the clinical course and outcomes of patients hospitalized for COVID-19. Results of the Cardio-COVID-Italy multicentre study". Eur J Heart Fail . 2020;22:2238-2247.
48. "Mini-cog performance: novel marker of post discharge risk among patients hospitalized for heart failure". Circ Heart Fail . 2015;8:8-16.
49. "Self-management of heart failure in dementia and cognitive impairment: a systematic review". BMC Cardiovasc Disord . 2019;19:99.
50. "Cognitive impairment and heart failure: systematic review and meta-analysis". J Card Fail . 2017;23:464-475.
51. "Depression and heart failure: the lonely comorbidity". Eur J Heart Fail . 2020;22:2007-2017.
52. "Psychiatric and psychological interventions for depression in patients with heart disease: a scoping review". J Am Heart Assoc . 2020;9: e018686.
53. "The impact of substance abuse on heart failure hospitalizations". Am J Med . 2020;133:207-213.e1.
54. "Frailty in older adults: evidence for a phenotype". J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci . 2001;56:M146-M156.
55. "Discussing out-of-pocket costs with patients: shared decision making for sacubitril-valsartan in heart failure". J Am Heart Assoc . 2019;8: e010635.
56. "Food insecurity is associated with cardiovascular and all-cause mortality among adults in the United States". J Am Heart Assoc . 2020;9: e014629.
57. "Diagnostic accuracy of two food insecurity screeners recommended for use in health care settings". Am J Public Health . 2017;107:1812-1817.
58. "Importance of housing and cardiovascular health and well-being: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association". Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes . 2020;13: e000089.
59. "Lives cut short: socioeconomic inequities, homelessness, and cardiovascular disease". Eur Heart J . 2020;41:4021-4023.
60. "Cardiovascular disease and homelessness". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2018;71:2585-2597.
61. "Screening for intimate partner violence, elder abuse, and abuse of vulnerable adults: US Preventive Services Task Force Final Recommendation Statement". JAMA . 2018;320:1678-1687.
62. "Risk of cardiometabolic disease and all-cause mortality in female survivors of domestic abuse". J Am Heart Assoc . 2020;9: e014580.
63. "Association between limited English proficiency and revisits and readmissions after hospitalization for patients with acute and chronic conditions in Toronto, Ontario, Canada". JAMA . 2019;322:1605-1607.
64. "Health literacy and cardiovascular disease: fundamental relevance to primary and secondary prevention: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association". Circulation . 2018;138:e48-e74.
65. "Perceived social isolation and outcomes in patients with heart failure". J Am Heart Assoc . 2018;7: e008069.
7.1.2. Dietary Sodium Restriction
1. "Salt and fluid restriction is effective in patients with chronic heart failure". Eur J Heart Fail . 2013;15:1304-1310.
2. "Impact of dietary sodium restriction on heart failure outcomes". J Am Coll Cardiol HF . 2016;4:24-35.
3. "Low- versus moderate-sodium diet in patients with recent hospitalization for heart failure: the PROHIBIT (Prevent Adverse Outcomes in Heart Failure by Limiting Sodium) pilot study". Circ Heart Fail . 2020;13: e006389.
4. "The long-term effects of dietary sodium restriction on clinical outcomes in patients with heart failure. The SODIUM-HF (Study of Dietary Intervention Under 100 mmol in Heart Failure): a pilot study". Am Heart J . 2015;169:274-281.e1.
5. "Changes in dietary intake and nutritional status associated with a significant reduction in sodium intake in patients with heart failure. A sub-analysis of the SODIUM-HF pilot study". Clin Nutr ESPEN . 2016;11:e26-e32.
6. "Home-delivered meals postdischarge from heart failure hospitalization". Circ Heart Fail . 2018;11: e004886.
7. "2013 ACCF/AHA guideline for the management of heart failure: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2013;62:e147-e239.
8. "The uncertainty of sodium restriction in heart failure: we can do better than this". J Am Coll Cardiol HF . 2016;4:39-41.
9. "Sodium restriction in heart failure: too much uncertainty-do the trials". JAMA Intern Med . 2018;178:1700-1701.
10. "Notice of concern". J Card Fail . 2013;19:523.
11. "Differential effect of ticagrelor versus prasugrel on coronary blood flow velocity in patients with non-ST-elevation acute coronary syndrome undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention: an exploratory study". Circ Cardiovasc Interv . 2013;6:277-283.
12. "Recommended dietary pattern to achieve adherence to the American Heart Association/American College of Cardiology (AHA/ACC) guidelines: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association". Circulation . 2016;134:e505-e529.
13. "Reduced salt intake for heart failure: a systematic review". JAMA Intern Med . 2018;178:1693-1700.
14. "Effect of a sodium-restricted diet on intake of other nutrients in heart failure: implications for research and clinical practice". J Card Fail . 2015;21:959-962.
15. "Micronutrient deficiency independently predicts time to event in patients with heart failure". J Am Heart Assoc . 2018;7: e007251.
16. "Nutritional intervention in malnourished hospitalized patients with heart failure". Arch Med Res . 2016;47:535-540.
17. "Insufficient calorie intake worsens post-discharge quality of life and increases readmission burden in heart failure". J Am Coll Cardiol HF . 2020;8:756-764.
18. "Effect of oral iron repletion on exercise capacity in patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction and iron deficiency: the IRONOUT HF randomized clinical trial". JAMA . 2017;317:1958-1966.
19. "Thiamin supplementation does not improve left ventricular ejection fraction in ambulatory heart failure patients: a randomized controlled trial". Am J Clin Nutr . 2019;110:1287-1295.
20. "Zinc deficiency and heart failure: a systematic review of the current literature". J Card Fail . 2020;26:180-189.
21. "Meta-analysis of vitamin D supplementation in the treatment of chronic heart failure". Scand Cardiovasc J . 2019;53:110-116.
22. "The effect of multiple micronutrient supplementation on left ventricular ejection fraction in patients with chronic stable heart failure: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial". J Am Coll Cardiol HF . 2014;2:308-317.
23. "Adherence to Mediterranean diet and all-cause mortality after an episode of acute heart failure: results of the MEDIT-AHF study". J Am Coll Cardiol HF . 2018;6:52-62.
24. "Aggressive fluid and sodium restriction in acute decompensated heart failure: a randomized clinical trial". JAMA Intern Med . 2013;173:1058-1064.
25. "Aggressive fluid and sodium restriction in decompensated heart failure with preserved ejection fraction: results from a randomized clinical trial". Nutrition . 2018;54:111-117.
26. "Low-sodium diet self-management intervention in heart failure: pilot study results". Eur J Cardiovasc Nurs . 2013;12:87-95.
7.1.3. Management of Stage C HF: Activity, Exercise Prescription, and Cardiac Rehabilitation
1. "Efficacy and safety of exercise training in patients with chronic heart failure: HF-ACTION randomized controlled trial". JAMA . 2009;301:1439-1450.
2. "Exercise training for systolic heart failure: Cochrane systematic review and meta-analysis". Eur J Heart Fail . 2010;12:706-715.
3. "Meta-analysis of aerobic interval training on exercise capacity and systolic function in patients with heart failure and reduced ejection fractions". Am J Cardiol . 2013;111:1466-1469.
4. "Resistance exercise enhances oxygen uptake without worsening cardiac function in patients with systolic heart failure: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Heart Fail Rev . 2018;23:73-89.
5. "Impact of exercise rehabilitation on exercise capacity and quality-of-life in heart failure: individual participant meta-analysis". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2019;73:1430-1443.
6. "Exercise-based rehabilitation for heart failure: systematic review and meta-analysis". Open Heart . 2015;2: e000163.
7. "Exercise training meta-analysis of trials in patients with chronic heart failure (ExTraMATCH)". BMJ . 2004;328:189.
8. "Exercise-based rehabilitation for heart failure". Cochrane Database Syst Rev . 2014. CD003331.
9. "Physical rehabilitation for older patients hospitalized for heart failure". N Engl J Med . 2021;385:203-216.
10. "Exercise and heart failure: a statement from the American Heart Association Committee on Exercise, Rehabilitation, and Prevention". Circulation . 2003;107:1210-1225.
11. "Heart failure as a newly approved diagnosis for cardiac rehabilitation: challenges and opportunities". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2015;65:2652-2659.
12. "Exercise training in patients with heart failure: clinical outcomes, safety, and indications". Heart Fail Rev . 2008;13:3-11.
13. "Exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation in patients with chronic heart failure: a Dutch practice guideline". Neth Heart J . 2015;23:6-17.
14. "Exercise based rehabilitation for heart failure". Cochrane Database Syst Rev . 2010. CD003331.
15. "Exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation for adults with heart failure". Cochrane Database Syst Rev . 2019;1:CD003331.
16. "Effects of exercise training on cardiac function, exercise capacity, and quality of life in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials". Heart Fail Rev . 2019;24:535-547.
17. "Clinical outcomes and cardiovascular responses to exercise training in heart failure patients with preserved ejection fraction: a systematic review and meta-analysis". J Appl Physiol (1985) . 2015;119:726-733.
18. "Exercise training in older patients with heart failure and preserved ejection fraction: a randomized, controlled, single-blind trial". Circ Heart Fail . 2010;3:659-667.
19. "Exercise training improves exercise capacity and diastolic function in patients with heart failure with preserved ejection fraction: results of the Ex-DHF (Exercise training in Diastolic Heart Failure) pilot study". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2011;58:1780-1791.
20. "Cardiovascular effects of 1 year of progressive endurance exercise training in patients with heart failure with preserved ejection fraction". Am Heart J . 2012;164:869-877.
21. "Effect of endurance exercise training on endothelial function and arterial stiffness in older patients with heart failure and preserved ejection fraction: a randomized, controlled, single-blind trial". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2013;62:584-592.
22. "Effect of caloric restriction or aerobic exercise training on peak oxygen consumption and quality of life in obese older patients with heart failure with preserved ejection fraction: a randomized clinical trial". JAMA . 2016;315:36-46.
7.2. Diuretics and Decongestion Strategies in Patients With HF
1. "Oral torsemide in patients with chronic congestive heart failure: effects on body weight, edema, and electrolyte excretion. Torsemide Investigators Group". Pharmacotherapy . 1994;14:514-521.
2. "Six-week study of torsemide in patients with congestive heart failure". Clin Ther . 1993;15:1051-1059.
3. "Effect of diuresis on the performance of the failing left ventricle in man". Am J Med . 1981;70:234-239.
4. "The effects of oral ibopamine in patients with mild heart failure-a double blind placebo controlled comparison to furosemide. The Ibopamine Study Group". Int J Cardiol . 1993;40:221-227.
5. "Double-blind comparison of captopril alone against frusemide plus amiloride in mild heart failure". Lancet . 1987;2:709-711.
6. "Intensification of medication therapy for cardiorenal syndrome in acute decompensated heart failure". J Card Fail . 2016;22:26-32.
7. "Diuretic treatment in heart failure". N Engl J Med . 2017;377:1964-1975.
8. "Diuretic treatment for the sodium retention of congestive heart failure". Arch Intern Med . 1994;154:1905-1914.
9. "Loop diuretic prescription and 30-day outcomes in older patients with heart failure". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2020;76:669-679.
10. "Bioavailability, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics of torsemide and furosemide in patients with congestive heart failure". Clin Pharmacol Ther . 1995;57:601-609.
11. "Open-label randomized trial of torsemide compared with furosemide therapy for patients with heart failure". Am J Med . 2001;111:513-520.
12. "Torasemide in chronic heart failure: results of the TORIC study". Eur J Heart Fail . 2002;4:507-513.
13. "Diuretic combinations in refractory oedema states: pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic relationships". Clin Pharmacokinet . 1996;30:229-249.
14. "The physiologic basis of diuretic synergism: its role in treating diuretic resistance". Ann Intern Med . 1991;114:886-894.
15. "Combination of loop diuretics with thiazide-type diuretics in heart failure". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2010;56:1527-1534.
16. "Diuretic strategies for loop diuretic resistance in acute heart failure: the 3T trial". J Am Coll Cardiol HF . 2020;8:157-168.
17. "Outcomes associated with a strategy of adjuvant metolazone or high-dose loop diuretics in acute decompensated heart failure: a propensity analysis". J Am Heart Assoc . 2018;7: e009149.
18. "Diuretic strategies in patients with acute decompensated heart failure". N Engl J Med . 2011;364:797-805.
7.3.1. Renin-Angiotensin System Inhibition With ACEi or ARB or ARNi
1. "Angiotensin-neprilysin inhibition versus enalapril in heart failure". N Engl J Med . 2014;371:993-1004.
2. "Initiation of sacubitril/valsartan in haemodynamically stabilised heart failure patients in hospital or early after discharge: primary results of the randomised TRANSITION study". Eur J Heart Fail . 2019;21:998-1007.
3. "Angiotensin-neprilysin inhibition in acute decompensated heart failure". N Engl J Med . 2019;380:539-548.
4. "Effect of sacubitril-valsartan vs enalapril on aortic stiffness in patients with heart failure and reduced ejection fraction: a randomized clinical trial". JAMA . 2019;322:1077-1084.
5. "Effects of the angiotensin-receptor neprilysin inhibitor on cardiac reverse remodeling: meta-analysis". J Am Heart Assoc . 2019;8: e012272.
6. "Effects of enalapril on mortality in severe congestive heart failure. Results of the Cooperative North Scandinavian Enalapril Survival Study (CONSENSUS)". N Engl J Med . 1987;316:1429-1435.
7. "Effect of enalapril on survival in patients with reduced left ventricular ejection fractions and congestive heart failure". N Engl J Med . 1991;325:293-302.
8. "Comparative effects of low and high doses of the angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor, lisinopril, on morbidity and mortality in chronic heart failure. ATLAS Study Group". Circulation . 1999;100:2312-2318.
9. "Effect of captopril on mortality and morbidity in patients with left ventricular dysfunction after myocardial infarction: results of the Survival and Ventricular Enlargement Trial. The SAVE Investigators". N Engl J Med . 1992;327:669-677.
10. "Effect of ramipril on mortality and morbidity of survivors of acute myocardial infarction with clinical evidence of heart failure. The Acute Infarction Ramipril Efficacy (AIRE) Study Investigators". Lancet . 1993;342:821-828.
11. "A clinical trial of the angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor trandolapril in patients with left ventricular dysfunction after myocardial infarction. Trandolapril Cardiac Evaluation (TRACE) Study Group". N Engl J Med . 1995;333:1670-1676.
12. "Overview of randomized trials of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors on mortality and morbidity in patients with heart failure. Collaborative Group on ACE Inhibitor Trials". JAMA . 1995;273:1450-1456.
13. "Sex-dependent and race-dependent association of XPNPEP2 C-2399A polymorphism with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor-associated angioedema". Pharmacogenet Genomics . 2010;20:532-536.
14. "A randomized trial of the angiotensin-receptor blocker valsartan in chronic heart failure". N Engl J Med . 2001;345:1667-1675.
15. "Valsartan, captopril, or both in myocardial infarction complicated by heart failure, left ventricular dysfunction, or both [published correction appears in N Engl J Med. 2004;350:203]". N Engl J Med . 2003;349:1893-1906.
16. "Effects of high-dose versus low-dose losartan on clinical outcomes in patients with heart failure (HEAAL study): a randomised, double-blind trial". Lancet . 2009;374:1840-1848.
17. "Telmisartan, ramipril, or both in patients at high risk for vascular events". N Engl J Med . 2008;358:1547-1559.
18. "Effects of the angiotensin-receptor blocker telmisartan on cardiovascular events in high-risk patients intolerant to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors: a randomised controlled trial". Lancet . 2008;372:1174-1183.
19. "Incremental cost-effectiveness of guideline-directed medical therapies for heart failure". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2013;61:1440-1446.
20. "The cost-effectiveness of losartan versus captopril in patients with symptomatic heart failure". Cardiology . 1999;91:189-194.
21. "Costs and effects of enalapril therapy in patients with symptomatic heart failure: an economic analysis of the Studies of Left Ventricular Dysfunction (SOLVD) Treatment Trial". J Card Fail . 1995;1:371-380.
22. "Costs and effectiveness of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibition in patients with congestive heart failure". Arch Intern Med . 1994;154:1143-1149.
23. "Multinational economic evaluation of valsartan in patients with chronic heart failure: results from the Valsartan Heart Failure Trial (Val-HeFT)". Am Heart J . 2004;148:122-128.
24. "Pharmacologic management of heart failure and left ventricular systolic dysfunction: effect in female, black, and diabetic patients, and cost-effectiveness". Evid Rep Technol Assess (Summ) . 2003. 1-6.
25. "Cost-effectiveness of captopril therapy after myocardial infarction". J Am Coll Cardiol . 1995;26:914-919.
26. "Cost-effectiveness analysis of sacubitril/valsartan vs enalapril in patients with heart failure and reduced ejection fraction". JAMA Cardiol . 2016;1:666-672.
27. "Cost-effectiveness of sacubitril-valsartan in hospitalized patients who have heart failure with reduced ejection fraction". JAMA Cardiol . 2020;5:1236-1244.
28. "Cost-effectiveness of sacubitril-valsartan combination therapy compared with enalapril for the treatment of heart failure with reduced ejection fraction". J Am Coll Cardiol HF . 2016;4:392-402.
29. "Cost-effectiveness of sacubitril-valsartan in patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction". Ann Intern Med . 2016;165:681-689.
30. "Comparison of omapatrilat and enalapril in patients with chronic heart failure: the Omapatrilat Versus Enalapril Randomized Trial of Utility in Reducing Events (OVERTURE)". Circulation . 2002;106:920-926.
31. "Omapatrilat and enalapril in patients with hypertension: the Omapatrilat Cardiovascular Treatment vs. Enalapril (OCTAVE) trial". Am J Hypertens . 2004;17:103-111.
32. "Combined neprilysin and renin-angiotensin system inhibition for the treatment of heart failure". J Am Coll Cardiol HF . 2014;2:663-670.
33. "Vasopeptidase inhibition and angio-oedema". Lancet . 2000;356:608-609.
34. "The path to an angiotensin receptor antagonist-neprilysin inhibitor in the treatment of heart failure". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2015;65:1029-1041.
35. "Blood-pressure reduction with LCZ696, a novel dual-acting inhibitor of the angiotensin II receptor and neprilysin: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, active comparator study". Lancet . 2010;375:1255-1266.
36. "Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor-associated angioedema". Immunol Allergy Clin North Am . 2006;26:725-737.
37. "Comparative risk for angioedema associated with the use of drugs that target the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system". Arch Intern Med . 2012;172:1582-1589.
38. "Meta-analysis of randomized trials of angioedema as an adverse event of renin-angiotensin system inhibitors". Am J Cardiol . 2012;110:383-391.
39. "Angiotensin II receptor blockers are safe in patients with prior angioedema related to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors - a nationwide registry-based cohort study". J Intern Med . 2019;285:553-561.
40. "Prospective ARNI vs. ACE inhibitor trial to DetermIne Superiority in reducing heart failure Events after Myocardial Infarction (PARADISE-MI): design and baseline characteristics". Eur J Heart Fail . 2021;23:1040-1048.
41. "Cost-effectiveness analysis of sacubitril/valsartan for the treatment of heart failure with reduced ejection fraction in the United States". Pharmacotherapy . 2018;38:520-530.
7.3.2. Beta Blockers
1. "The Cardiac Insufficiency Bisoprolol Study II (CIBIS-II): a randomised trial". Lancet . 1999;353:9-13.
2. "Effect of metoprolol CR/XL in chronic heart failure: Metoprolol CR/XL Randomised Intervention Trial in Congestive Heart Failure (MERIT-HF)". Lancet . 1999;353:2001-2007.
3. "Effect of carvedilol on the morbidity of patients with severe chronic heart failure: results of the carvedilol prospective randomized cumulative survival (COPERNICUS) study". Circulation . 2002;106:2194-2199.
4. "Incremental cost-effectiveness of guideline-directed medical therapies for heart failure". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2013;61:1440-1446.
5. "Economic implications of extended-release metoprolol succinate for heart failure in the MERIT-HF trial: a US perspective of the MERIT-HF trial". J Card Fail . 2005;11:647-656.
6. "Cost effectiveness of carvedilol for heart failure". Am J Cardiol . 1999;83:890-896.
7. "Economic impact of beta blockade in heart failure". Am J Med . 2001;110:suppl 7A: 74S-80S.
8. "Cost-effectiveness results from the US Carvedilol Heart Failure Trials Program". Ann Pharmacother . 2001;35:846-851.
9. "Carvedilol produces dose-related improvements in left ventricular function and survival in subjects with chronic heart failure. MOCHA Investigators". Circulation . 1996;94:2807-2816.
10. "Beta-blockers for heart failure with reduced, mid-range, and preserved ejection fraction: an individual patient-level analysis of double-blind randomized trials". Eur Heart J . 2018;39:26-35.
11. "Effects of controlled-release metoprolol on total mortality, hospitalizations, and well-being in patients with heart failure: the Metoprolol CR/XL Randomized Intervention Trial in congestive heart failure (MERIT-HF)". JAMA . 2000;283:1295-1302.
12. "Efficacy of beta blockers in patients with heart failure plus atrial fibrillation: an individual-patient data meta-analysis". Lancet . 2014;384:2235-2243.
13. "Randomized trial to determine the effect of nebivolol on mortality and cardiovascular hospital admission in elderly patients with heart failure (SENIORS)". Eur Heart J . 2005;26:215-225.
14. "A trial of the beta-blocker bucindolol in patients with advanced chronic heart failure". N Engl J Med . 2001;344:1659-1667.
15. "Comparison of carvedilol and metoprolol on clinical outcomes in patients with chronic heart failure in the Carvedilol Or Metoprolol European Trial (COMET): randomised controlled trial". Lancet . 2003;362:7-13.
16. "Effect on survival and hospitalization of initiating treatment for chronic heart failure with bisoprolol followed by enalapril, as compared with the opposite sequence: results of the randomized Cardiac Insufficiency Bisoprolol Study (CIBIS) III". Circulation . 2005;112:2426-2435.
17. "Predischarge initiation of carvedilol in patients hospitalized for decompensated heart failure". Am J Cardiol . 2004;93:74B-76B.
18. "Withdrawal of pharmacological treatment for heart failure in patients with recovered dilated cardiomyopathy (TRED-HF): an open-label, pilot, randomised trial". Lancet . 2019;393:61-73.
19. "Long-term beta-blockade in dilated cardiomyopathy: effects of short- and long-term metoprolol treatment followed by withdrawal and readministration of metoprolol". Circulation . 1989;80:551-563.
7.3.3. Mineralocorticoid Receptor Antagonists (MRAs)
1. "The effect of spironolactone on morbidity and mortality in patients with severe heart failure. Randomized Aldactone Evaluation Study Investigators". N Engl J Med . 1999;341:709-717.
2. "Eplerenone Post-Acute Myocardial Infarction Heart Failure Efficacy and Survival Study Investigators. Eplerenone, a selective aldosterone blocker, in patients with left ventricular dysfunction after myocardial infarction". N Engl J Med . 2003;348:1309-1321.
3. "Eplerenone in patients with systolic heart failure and mild symptoms". N Engl J Med . 2011;364:11-21.
4. "Incremental cost-effectiveness of guideline-directed medical therapies for heart failure". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2013;61:1440-1446.
5. "Economic evaluation of the randomized aldactone evaluation study (RALES): treatment of patients with severe heart failure". Cardiovasc Drugs Ther . 2002;16:53-59.
6. "Cost-effectiveness of eplerenone compared with placebo in patients with myocardial infarction complicated by left ventricular dysfunction and heart failure". Circulation . 2005;111:1106-1113.
7. "Cost effectiveness of eplerenone in patients with heart failure after acute myocardial infarction who were taking both ACE inhibitors and beta-blockers: subanalysis of the EPHESUS". Am J Cardiovasc Drugs . 2010;10:55-63.
8. "Associations between aldosterone antagonist therapy and risks of mortality and readmission among patients with heart failure and reduced ejection fraction". JAMA . 2012;308:2097-2107.
9. "Rates of hyperkalemia after publication of the Randomized Aldactone Evaluation Study". N Engl J Med . 2004;351:543-551.
10. "FDA Aldactone label". 2008. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2008/012151s062lbl.pdf. Accessed
June 28, 2021 .11. "FDA INSPRA label". 2008. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2008/021437s006lbl.pdf. Accessed
June 28, 2021 .12. "Efficacy and safety of spironolactone in acute heart failure: the ATHENA-HF Randomized Clinical Trial". JAMA Cardiol . 2017;2:950-958.
13. "Angiotensin-neprilysin inhibition versus enalapril in heart failure". N Engl J Med . 2014;371:993-1004.
14. "Angiotensin-neprilysin inhibition in acute decompensated heart failure". N Engl J Med . 2019;380:539-548.
15. "Evaluation of the efficacy and safety of RLY5016, a polymeric potassium binder, in a double-blind, placebo-controlled study in patients with chronic heart failure (the PEARL-HF) trial". Eur Heart J . 2011;32:820-828.
16. "Maintenance of serum potassium with sodium zirconium cyclosilicate (ZS-9) in heart failure patients: results from a phase 3 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial". Eur J Heart Fail . 2015;17:1050-1056.
7.3.4. Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter 2 Inhibitors (SGLT2i)
1. "Dapagliflozin in patients with heart failure and reduced ejection fraction". N Engl J Med . 2019;381:1995-2008.
2. "Cardiovascular and renal outcomes with empagliflozin in heart failure". N Engl J Med . 2020;383:1413-1424.
3. "Cost-effectiveness of dapagliflozin for treatment of patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction". JAMA Cardiol . 2021;6:926-935.
4. "Cost-effectiveness of dapagliflozin for the treatment of heart failure with reduced ejection fraction". JAMA Netw Open . 2021;4: e2114501.
5. "Canagliflozin and cardiovascular and renal events in type 2 diabetes". N Engl J Med . 2017;377:644-657.
6. "Dapagliflozin and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes". N Engl J Med . 2019;380:347-357.
7. "Empagliflozin, cardiovascular outcomes, and mortality in type 2 diabetes". N Engl J Med . 2015;373:2117-2128.
8. "Mechanisms of cardiorenal effects of sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors: JACC state-of-the-art review". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2020;75:422-434.
9. "SGLT2 inhibitors in patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction: a meta-analysis of the EMPEROR-Reduced and DAPA-HF trials". Lancet . 2020;396:819-829.
10. "Sotagliflozin in patients with diabetes and recent worsening heart failure". N Engl J Med . 2021;384:117-128.
11. "Practical guide to prescribing sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors for cardiologists". J Am Coll Cardiol HF . 2019;7:169-172.
7.3.5. Hydralazine and Isosorbide Dinitrate (H-ISDN)
1. "Racial differences in response to therapy for heart failure: analysis of the vasodilator-heart failure trials. Vasodilator-Heart Failure Trial Study Group". J Card Fail . 1999;5:178-187.
2. "Combination of isosorbide dinitrate and hydralazine in blacks with heart failure". N Engl J Med . 2004;351:2049-2057.
3. "Cost-effectiveness of fixed-dose combination of isosorbide dinitrate and hydralazine therapy for blacks with heart failure". Circulation . 2005;112:3745-3753.
4. "Effect of vasodilator therapy on mortality in chronic congestive heart failure. Results of a Veterans Administration Cooperative Study". N Engl J Med . 1986;314:1547-1552.
5. "Clinical effectiveness of hydralazine-isosorbide dinitrate therapy in patients with heart failure and reduced ejection fraction: findings from the Get With The Guidelines-Heart Failure Registry". Circ Heart Fail . 2016;9: e002444.
6. "A comparison of enalapril with hydralazine-isosorbide dinitrate in the treatment of chronic congestive heart failure". N Engl J Med . 1991;325:303-310.
7. "Effect of direct vasodilation with hydralazine versus angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition with captopril on mortality in advanced heart failure: the Hy-C trial". J Am Coll Cardiol . 1992;19:842-850.
7.3.6. Other Drug Treatment
1. "Left ventricular systolic dysfunction, total mortality, and sudden death in patients with myocardial infarction treated with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids". Eur J Heart Fail . 2005;7:904-909.
2. "Effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in patients with chronic heart failure (the GISSI-HF trial): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial". Lancet . 2008;372:1223-1230.
3. "Cardiovascular risk reduction with icosapent ethyl for hypertriglyceridemia". N Engl J Med . 2019;380:11-22.
4. "Reduction in revascularization with icosapent ethyl: insights from REDUCE-IT revascularization analyses". Circulation . 2021;143:33-44.
5. "Evaluation of the efficacy and safety of RLY5016, a polymeric potassium binder, in a double-blind, placebo-controlled study in patients with chronic heart failure (the PEARL-HF) trial". Eur Heart J . 2011;32:820-828.
6. "Maintenance of serum potassium with sodium zirconium cyclosilicate (ZS-9) in heart failure patients: results from a phase 3 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial". Eur J Heart Fail . 2015;17:1050-1056.
7. "Randomized trial of warfarin, aspirin, and clopidogrel in patients with chronic heart failure: the Warfarin and Antiplatelet Therapy in Chronic Heart Failure (WATCH) trial". Circulation . 2009;119:1616-1624.
8. "Warfarin and aspirin in patients with heart failure and sinus rhythm". N Engl J Med . 2012;366:1859-1869.
9. "Rivaroxaban in patients with heart failure, sinus rhythm, and coronary disease". N Engl J Med . 2018;379:1332-1342.
10. "Early protection against sudden death by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids after myocardial infarction: time-course analysis of the results of the Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell'Infarto Miocardico (GISSI)-Prevenzione". Circulation . 2002;105:1897-1903.
11. "Abnormalities of potassium in heart failure: JACC state-of-the-art review". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2020;75:2836-2850.
12. "Factors associated with underuse of mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists in heart failure with reduced ejection fraction: an analysis of 11 215 patients from the Swedish Heart Failure Registry". Eur J Heart Fail . 2018;20:1326-1334.
13. "Effect of sodium zirconium cyclosilicate on potassium lowering for 28 days among outpatients with hyperkalemia: the HARMONIZE randomized clinical trial". JAMA . 2014;312:2223-2233.
14. "Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and cardiovascular diseases". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2009;54:585-594.
15. "Digoxin discontinuation and outcomes in patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2019;74:617-627.
16. "Effect of high-dose omega-3 fatty acids vs corn oil on major adverse cardiovascular events in patients at high cardiovascular risk: the STRENGTH randomized clinical trial". JAMA . 2020;324:2268-2280.
17. "Incidence of thromboembolic events in congestive heart failure. The V-HeFT VA Cooperative Studies Group". Circulation . 1993;87:6 suppl: VI94-VI101.
18. "Thromboembolism and antithrombotic therapy in congestive heart failure". J Cardiovasc Risk . 1995;2:107-117.
19. "Systemic thromboembolism in chronic heart failure. A prospective study in 406 patients". Eur Heart J . 1996;17:1381-1389.
20. "Ventricular dysfunction and the risk of stroke after myocardial infarction". N Engl J Med . 1997;336:251-257.
21. "Warfarin anticoagulation and survival: a cohort analysis from the studies of left ventricular dysfunction". J Am Coll Cardiol . 1998;31:749-753.
22. "Effect of antithrombotic therapy on risk of sudden coronary death in patients with congestive heart failure". Am J Cardiol . 1997;79:909-913.
7.3.7. Drugs of Unproven Value or That May Worsen HF
1. "Effect of amlodipine on morbidity and mortality in severe chronic heart failure. Prospective Randomized Amlodipine Survival Evaluation Study Group". N Engl J Med . 1996;335:1107-1114.
2. "Effect of amlodipine on the survival of patients with severe chronic heart failure due to a nonischemic cardiomyopathy: results of the PRAISE-2 study (prospective randomized amlodipine survival evaluation 2)". J Am Coll Cardiol HF . 2013;1:308-314.
3. "Supplementation with vitamin D and omega-3 fatty acids and incidence of heart failure hospitalization: VITAL-Heart Failure". Circulation . 2020;141:784-786.
4. "Meta-analysis of vitamin D supplementation in the treatment of chronic heart failure". Scand Cardiovasc J . 2019;53:110-116.
5. "Vitamin D supplementation of 4000 IU daily and cardiac function in patients with advanced heart failure: the EVITA trial". Int J Cardiol . 2019;280:117-123.
6. "Effects of long-term vitamin E supplementation on cardiovascular events and cancer: a randomized controlled trial". JAMA . 2005;293:1338-1347.
7. "Vitamin E increases the risk of developing heart failure after myocardial infarction: results from the GISSI-Prevenzione trial". J Cardiovasc Med (Hagerstown) . 2006;7:347-350.
8. "The effect of coenzyme Q10 on morbidity and mortality in chronic heart failure: results from Q-SYMBIO: a randomized double-blind trial". J Am Coll Cardiol HF . 2014;2:641-649.
9. "Coenzyme Q10 for heart failure". Cochrane Database Syst Rev . 2014. CD008684.
10. "Effect of verapamil on mortality and major events after acute myocardial infarction (the Danish Verapamil Infarction Trial II--DAVIT II)". Am J Cardiol . 1990;66:779-785.
11. "The effect of diltiazem on mortality and reinfarction after myocardial infarction". N Engl J Med . 1988;319:385-392.
12. "Diltiazem increases late-onset congestive heart failure in postinfarction patients with early reduction in ejection fraction. The Adverse Experience Committee; and the Multicenter Diltiazem Postinfarction Research Group". Circulation . 1991;83:52-60.
13. "Diltiazem improves cardiac function and exercise capacity in patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Results of the Diltiazem in Dilated Cardiomyopathy Trial". Circulation . 1996;94:346-352.
14. "Mortality and morbidity in patients receiving encainide, flecainide, or placebo. The Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial". N Engl J Med . 1991;324:781-788.
15. "Effect of d-sotalol on mortality in patients with left ventricular dysfunction after recent and remote myocardial infarction. The SWORD Investigators. Survival With Oral d-Sotalol". Lancet . 1996;348:7-12.
16. "Increased mortality after dronedarone therapy for severe heart failure". N Engl J Med . 2008;358:2678-2687.
17. "Thiazolidinediones and cardiovascular outcomes in older patients with diabetes". JAMA . 2007;298:2634-2643.
18. "Congestive heart failure and cardiovascular death in patients with prediabetes and type 2 diabetes given thiazolidinediones: a meta-analysis of randomised clinical trials". Lancet . 2007;370:1129-1136.
19. "A randomized, placebo-controlled trial assessing the effects of rosiglitazone on echocardiographic function and cardiac status in type 2 diabetic patients with New York Heart Association functional class I or II heart failure". J Am Coll Cardiol . 2007;49:1696-1704.
20. "Rosiglitazone evaluated for cardiovascular outcomes in oral agent combination therapy for type 2 diabetes (RECORD): a multicentre, randomised, open-label trial". Lancet . 2009;373:2125-2135.
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